Government and Politics
blamed Jews for almost every. thing wrong in Germany or other nations. If
there was a crop failure due to drought, it was sure to be seen as a
Jewish conspiracy.
2. One-party systems. A totalitarian Style has only one legal political
party, which monopolizes the offices of government. It penetrates and
controls all social institutions and serves as the source of wealth,
prestige, and power.
3. Control of weapons. Totalitarian states also monopolize the use of arms.
All military units art subject to the control of the ruling regime.
4. Terror. Totalitarian states often rely on general intimidation (such as
prohibiting unapproved publications) and individual deterrent (such as
torture and execution) to maintain control (Bahry and Silver, 1987).
Alexander Solzhenitsyn’s Gulag Archipelago (1973) describe the Soviet
Union’s imprisonment of political dissenters in mental hospitals, where
they are subjected to drug and electric shock treatments.
5. Control of the media. There is no "opposition press" in a totalitarian
state. The media communicate official interpretations of events and
reinforce behaviors and policies favored by the regime.
6. Control of the economy. Totalitarian states control major sectors of the
economy. They may dissolve private ownership of industry and even small
farms. In some cases, the central state establishes production goals for
each industrial and agricultural unit. The revolt of the Polish workers’
union. Solidarity, in the early 1980s was partly directed against the
government’s power over production quotas, working conditions, and
prices.
Through such methods, totalitarian governments deny people
representation in the political, economic, and social decisions that affect
their lives. Such governments have pervasive control over people’s
destinies.
Democracy
In a literal sense, democracy means government by the people. The word
democracy originated in two Greek roots—demos, meaning "the populace" or
"the common people"; and kratia, meaning "rule." Of course, in large,
populous nations, government by all the people is impractical at the
national level. It would be impossible for the more than 246 million
Americans to vote on every important issue that comes before Congress.
Consequently, democracies are generally maintained through a mode of
participation known as representative democracy, in which certain
individuals are selected to speak for the people.
The United States is commonly classified as a representative
democracy, since we elect members of Congress and state legislatures to
handle the task of writing our laws. However, critics have questioned how
representative our democracy is. Are the masses genuinely represented? Is
there authentic self-government in the United States or merely competition
between powerful elites?
Clearly, citizens cannot be effectively represented if they are not
granted the right to vote. Yet our nation did not enfranchise black males
until 1870, and women were not allowed to vote in presidential elections
until 1920. American Indians were allowed to become citizens (thereby
qualifying to vote) only in 1924, and as late as 1956, some states
prevented Indians from voting in local elections if they lived on
reservations.
Unlike monarchies, oligarchies, and dictatorships, the democratic form
of government implies an opposition which is tolerated or, indeed,
encouraged to exist. In the United States, we have two major political
parties—the Democrats and Republicans—as well as various minor parties.
Sociologists use the term political party to refer to an organization whose
purposes are to promote candidates for elected office, advance an ideology
as reflected in positions on political issues, win elections, and exercise
power. Whether a democracy has two major political parties (as in the
United States) or incorporates a multiparty system (as in France and
Israel), it will typically stress the need for differing points of view.
Seymour Martin Upset, among other sociologists, has attempted to
identify the factors which may help to bring about democratic forms of
government. He argues that a high level of economic development encourages
both stability and democracy. Upset reached this conclusion after studying
50 nations and finding a high correlation between economic development and
certain forms of government.
Why should there be such a link? In a society with a high level of
development, the population generally tends to be urbanized and literate
and is better equipped to participate in decision making and make the views
of its members heard. In addition, as Upset suggests, a relatively affluent
society will be comparatively free from demands on government by low-income
citizens. Poor people in such nations can reasonably aspire to upward
mobility. Therefore, along with the large middle class typically found in
industrial societies, the poorer segments of society may have a stake in
economic and political stability.
Upset’s formulation has been attacked by conflict theorists, who tend
to be critical of the distribution of power within democracies. As we will
see later, many conflict theorists believe that the United States is run by
a small economic and political elite. At the same time, they observe that
economic stability does not necessarily promote or guarantee political
freedoms. Lipset (1972) himself agrees that democracy in practice is far
from ideal and that one must distinguish between varying degrees of
democracy in democratic systems of government. Thus, we cannot assume that
a high level of economic development or the self-proclaimed label of
"democracy" assures freedom and adequate political representation.
POLITICAL BEHAVIOR IN THE UNITED STATES
As American citizens we take for granted many aspects of our political
system. We are accustomed to living in a nation with a Bill of Rights, two
major political parties, voting by secret ballot, an elected president,
state and local governments distinct from the national government, and so
forth. Yet, of course, each society has its own ways of governing itself
and making decisions. Just as we expect Democratic and Republican
candidates to compete for public offices, residents of the Soviet Union are
accustomed to the domination of the Communist party. In this section, we
will examine a number of important aspects of political behavior within the
United States.
Political Socialization
Five functional prerequisites that a society must fulfill in order to
survive were identified. Among these was the need to teach recruits to
accept the values and customs of the group. In a political sense, this
function is crucial; each succeeding generation must be encouraged to
accept a society’s basic political values and its particular methods of
decision making.
Political socialization is the process by which individuals acquire
political attitudes and develop patterns of political behavior. This
involves not only learning the prevailing beliefs of a society but also
coming to accept the surrounding political system despite its limitations
and problems. In the United States, people are socialized to view
representative democracy as the best form of government and to cherish such
values as freedom, equality, patriotism, and the right of dissent.
The principal institutions of political socialization are those which
also socialize us to other cultural norms—including the family, schools,
and the media. Many observers see the family as playing a particularly
significant role in this process. "The family incubates political man,"
observed political scientist Robert Lane. In fact, parents pass on their
political attitudes and evaluations to their sons and daughters through
discussions at the dinner table and also through the example of their
political involvement or apathy. Early socialization does not always
determine a person’s political orientation; there are changes over time and
between generations. Yet research on political socialization continues to
show that parents’ views have an important impact on their children’s
outlook.
The schools can be influential in political socialization, since they
provide young people with information and analysis of the political world.
Unlike the family and peer groups, schools are easily susceptible to
centralized and uniform control; consequently, totalitarian societies
commonly use educational institutions for purposes of indoctrination. Yet,
even in democracies, where local schools are not under the pervasive
control of the national government, political education will generally
reflect the norms and values of the prevailing political order.
In the view of conflict theorists, American students learn much more
than factual information about our political and economic way of life. They
are socialized to view capitalism and representative democracy as the
"normal" and most desirable ways of organizing a nation. At the same time,
competing values and forms of government are often presented in a most
negative fashion or are ignored. From a conflict perspective, this type of
political education serves the interests of the powerful and ignores the
significance of the social divisions found within the United States.
It is difficult to pinpoint a precise time in which politics is
learned. Fred Greenstein argues that the crucial time in a young person’s
psychological, social, and political development is between ages 9 and 13.
In the same vein, one study found that children 13 and 14 years of age were
much more able to understand abstract political concepts than were children
a few years younger. Specifically, in response to a question about the
meaning of government, older children tended to identify with Congress,
whereas younger children identified with a more personal figure such as the
president. Other research, however, points to a significant leap in
political sophistication during the ages of 13 to 15.
Surprisingly, expression of a preference for a political party often
comes before young people have a full understanding of the political
system. Surveys indicate that 65 to 75 percent of children aged 10 and 11
express commitment to a specific political label, including "independent."
Political scientists M. Kent Jennings and Richard G. Niemi (1974) have
found that children who demonstrate high levels of political competence—by
understanding the differences between political parties and between liberal
and conservative philosophies—are more likely to become politically active
during adulthood.
Like the family and schools, the mass media can have obvious effects
on people’s thinking and political behavior. Beginning with the Kennedy-
Nixon presidential debates of 1960, television has given increasing
exposure to political candidates. One result has been the rising importance
of politicians’ "images" as perceived by the American public. Today, many
speeches given by our nation’s leaders are designed not for immediate
listeners, but for the larger television audience. In the social policy
section later, we will examine the impact of television on American
political campaigns.
Although television has obvious impact on elective politics, it has
also become an important factor in other aspects of American political
life. In 1987, when a joint congressional committee held televised hearings
on the Iran-contra scandal, Lieutenant Colonel Oliver North’s outspoken
testimony brought him a wave of public support. One effect of his media
success, though primarily in the short run, was an increase in support for
the "contras" and their effort to overthrow Nicaragua’s Marxist regime. By
contrast. Judge Robert Bork’s televised testimony before the Senate
Judiciary Committee in 1987 seemed to hurt his chances of winning
confirmation as a Supreme Court justice.
A number of communication studies have reported that the media do not
tend to influence the masses of people directly. Elihu Katz (1957)
describes the process as a two-step flow of communication, using an
approach which reflects interactionists’ emphasis on the social
significance of everyday social exchanges. In Katz’s view, messages passed
through the media first reach a small number of opinion leaders, including
teachers, religious authorities, and community activists. These leaders
"spread the word" to others over whom they have influence.
Opinion leaders are not necessarily formal leaders of organized groups
of people. For example, someone who hears a disturbing report about the
dangers of radioactive wastes in a nearby river will probably tell family
members and friends. Each of these persons may inform still others and
perhaps persuade them to support the position of an environmentalist group
working to clean up the river. Of course, in any communications process in
which someone plays an intermediate role, the message can be reinterpreted.
Opinion leaders can subtly transform a political message to their own ends.
Participation and Apathy
In theory, a representative democracy will function most effectively
and fairly if there is an informed and active electorate communicating its
views to government leaders. Unfortunately, this is hardly the case in the
United States. Virtually all Americans are familiar with the basics of the
political process, and most tend to identify to some extent with a
political party, but only a small minority (often members of the higher
social classes) actually participate in political organizations on a local
or national level. Studies reveal that only 8 percent of Americans belong
to a political club or organization. Not more than one in five has ever
contacted an official of national, state, or local government about a
political issue or problem.
The failure of most Americans to become involved in political parties
has serious implications for the functioning of our democracy. Within the
political system of the United States, the political party serves as an
intermediary between people and government. Through competition in
regularly scheduled elections, the two-party system provides for challenges
to public policies and for an orderly transfer of power. An individual
dissatisfied with the state of the nation or a local community can become
involved in the political party process in many ways, such as by joining a
political club, supporting candidates for public office, or working to
change the party’s position on controversial issues. If, however, people do
not take interest in the decisions of major political parties, public
officials in a "representative" democracy will be chosen from two
unrepresentative lists of candidates. In the 1980s, it has become clear
that many
Americans are turned off by political parties, politicians, and the
specter of big government. The most dramatic indication of this growing
alienation comes from voting statistics. Voters of all ages and races
appear to be less enthusiastic than ever about American elections, even
presidential contests. For example, almost 80 percent of eligible American
voters went to the polls in the presidential election of 1896. Yet, by the
1984 election, voter turnout had fallen to less than 60 percent of all
adults. By contrast, elections during the first half of the 1980s brought
out 85 percent or more of the voting-age population in Austria, Belgium,
Italy, Portugal, and Sweden.
Declining political participation allows institutions of government to
operate with less of a sense of accountability to society. This issue is
most serious for the least powerful individual and groups within the United
States. Voter turn out has been particularly low among younger Americans
and members of racial and ethnic minorities. In 1984, only 36 percent of
eligible voters aged 18 to 20 went to the polls. According to a
postelection survey, only 55.8 percent of eligible black voters and 32.6
percent of Hispanic reported that they had actually voted. Moreover, the
poor—whose focus understandably is on survival—are traditionally under-
represented among voters as well. The low turnout found among these groups
is explained, at least in part, by their common feeling of powerlessness.
Yet such voting statistics encourage political power brokers to continue to
ignore the interests of the young, the less affluent, and the nation’s
minorities.
Sociologist Anthony Orum notes that people are more likely to
participate actively in political life if they have a sense of political
efficacy—that is, if they feel that they have (he ability to influence
politicians and the political order. In addition, citizens are more likely
to become involved if they trust political leaders or feel that an
organized political party represents their interest. Without question, in
an age marked by the rise of big government and by revelations of political
corruption at the highest levels, many Americans of all social groups feel
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